## lunes, 6 de julio de 2020

### Generalization of two formulae and an alternative proof of Bretschneider's formula

"If we do not succeed in solving a mathematical problem, the reason frequently consists in our failure to recognize the more general standpoint from which the problem before us appears only as a single link in a chain of related problems. After finding this standpoint, not only is this problem frequently more accessible to our investigation, but at the same time we come into possession of a method which is applicable also to related problems."  David Hilbert

The following formulae generalize $(1)$ in my previous post Killing three birds with one stone. For implications in a triangle see also Proofs and applications of two well-known formulae involving sine, cosine and the semiperimeter of a triangle

Here, $a$, $b$, $c$, $d$ are the sides of a general convex quadrilateral, $s$ is the semiperimeter, and $\alpha$ and $\gamma$ are two opposite angles. Then

$$\sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{(s-a)(s-d)-bc\cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{ad}\quad and \quad \cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{(s-b)(s-c)-bc\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{ad}\tag{1}$$

Proof. By the Law of Cosines,

$$a^2+d^2-2ad\cos{\alpha}=b^2+c^2-2bc\cos{\gamma}\tag{2}$$

Yielding $\cos{\alpha}=\frac{a^2+d^2-b^2-c^2+2bc\cos{\gamma}}{2ad}$. Now, making use of the half angle formula for cosine,

\begin{align*} \cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}&=\frac{a^2+d^2+2ad-b^2-c^2+2bc\cos{\gamma}}{4ad}\tag{3}\\ &=\frac{a^2+d^2+2ad-b^2-c^2+2bc(1-2\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}})}{4ad}\tag{4}\\&=\frac{(a+d)^2-(b-c)^2-4bc\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{4ad}\tag{5}\\&=\frac{(a+d+b-c)(a+d-b+c)-4bc\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{4ad}\tag{6}\\&=\frac{1}{ad}\left(\frac{a+b+c+d}{2}-c\right)\left(\frac{a+b+c+d}{2}-b\right)-\frac{bc\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{ad}\tag{7}\\&=\frac{(s-b)(s-c)-bc\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{ad}\tag{8}\end{align*}

$\square$

The other formula can be obtained similarly by replacing $\cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}$ by $1 - \sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}$ in $(3)$.

A proof of Bretschneider's formula
The formulae in $(1)$ can be rewritten as follows

$$ad\sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}+bc\cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=(s-a)(s-d)\tag{9}$$

and

$$bc\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}+ad\cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=(s-b)(s-c)\tag{10}$$

Multiplying $(9)$ and $(10)$ we get

\begin{align*}\left(ad\sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}+bc\cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}\right)\left(bc\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}+ad\cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\right) &= (s-a)(s-b)(s-c)(s-d)\tag{11}\end{align*}

Expanding, factorizing, completing the squares and keeping in mind some well-known trigonometric identities,

\begin{align*}abcd\cos^2\left({\frac{\alpha+\gamma}{2}}\right)+\left(ad\sin{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cos{\frac{\alpha}{2}}+bc\sin{\frac{\gamma}{2}}\cos{\frac{\gamma}{2}}\right)^2 &=(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)(s-d)\tag{12}\\abcd\cos^2\left({\frac{\alpha+\gamma}{2}}\right)+\left(\frac{ad\sin{\alpha}}{2}+\frac{bc\sin{\gamma}}{2}\right)^2 &=(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)(s-d)\tag{13} \end{align*}

Since the area of $ABCD$ can be expressed as the sum of the areas of $\triangle{ABD}$ and $\triangle{CBD}$, which in turn can be written as $\frac{ad\sin{\alpha}}{2}+\frac{bc\sin{\gamma}}{2}$, then we are done.
$\square$

Below you can find a concept map of the identities $(9)$ and $(10)$ so you can see clearly what's going on here (click on the image to have a better view).

It would be interesting to investigate whether identities $(9)$ and $(10)$ can be generalized to other geometries.

## sábado, 4 de julio de 2020

### Killing three birds with one stone

In this note we derive Heron's formula, Brahmagupta's formula and the bicentric quadrilateral's area formula, $\sqrt{abcd}$, from two formulae involving sine, cosine, semiperimeter and the side lenghts of a cyclic quadrilateral.

Let $ABCD$ be a cyclic quadrilateral with $AB=a$, $BC=b$, $CD=c$, $DA=d$ and $s=\frac{a+b+c+d}{2}$. If $\angle{BAD}=\alpha$, then

$$\sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{(s-a)(s-d)}{ad+bc}\quad and \quad \cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{(s-b)(s-c)}{ad+bc}\tag{1}$$

or

$$sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{(a+b+c-d)(-a+b+c+d)}{4(ad+bc)}\quad and \quad cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{(a+b-c+d)(a-b+c+d)}{4(ad+bc)}\tag{2}$$

Proof. First we will find an expression for $\cos{\alpha}$ in terms of $a$, $b$, $c$ and $d$. Let $\angle{BCD}=\gamma$. By the Law of Cosines and keeping in mind that $\alpha$ and $\gamma$ are supplementary, we have

$$a^2+d^2-2ad\cos{\alpha}=b^2+c^2-2bc\cos{(180^\circ-\alpha)}\tag{3}$$

Yielding $\cos{\alpha}=\frac{a^2+d^2-b^2-c^2}{2(ad+bc)}$. Now, making use of the half angle formula for cosine,

\begin{align*} \cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}&=\frac{2ad+2bc+a^2+d^2-b^2-c^2}{4(ad+bc)}\tag{4}\\ &=\frac{(a+d)^2-(b-c)^2}{4(ad+bc)}\tag{5}\\&=\frac{(a+b-c+d)(a-b+c+d)}{4(ad+bc)}\tag{6}\\&=\frac{1}{ad+bc}\left(\frac{a+b+c+d}{2}-c\right)\left(\frac{a+b+c+d}{2}-b\right)\tag{7}\\&=\frac{(s-b)(s-c)}{ad+bc}\end{align*}

$\square$

The other formulae can be obtained similarly by replacing $\cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}$ by $1 - \sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}$.

A generalization of $(1)$ together with a proof of Bretschneider's formula can be found here.

Remark$(1)$ appears as exercise 400 in V. Panagiotis' 1000 General Trigonometry Exercises, Volume B.

A proof of Heron's Formula
For a triangle, if in $(1)$ we assume $c=0$, then we have

$$\sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{(s-a)(s-d)}{ad}\quad and \quad \cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{s(s-b)}{ad}\tag{8}$$

Let $\Delta_0$ be the area of $\triangle{ABD}$. Making use of the double-angle identity for sine we have

$$\sin{\alpha}=2\sqrt{\frac{s(s-b)}{ad}}\sqrt{\frac{(s-a)(s-d)}{ad}}=2\frac{\sqrt{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-d)}}{ad}\tag{9}$$

Since $\Delta_0=\frac{ad\sin{\alpha}}{2}$, it follows

$$\Delta_0=\sqrt{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-d)}\tag{10}$$

$\square$

For more implications in a triangle see here.

A proof of the Brahmagupta's formula
Denote $\Delta_1$ the area of the cyclic quadrilateral, $ABCD$. Then

\begin{align*}\Delta_1&=\frac{ad\sin{\alpha}}{2}+\frac{bc\sin{(180^\circ-\alpha)}}{2}\tag{11}\\&=\frac{ad\sin{\alpha}}{2}+\frac{bc\sin{\alpha}}{2}\tag{12}\\&=\sin{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cos{\frac{\alpha}{2}}(ad+bc)\tag{13}\\&=\sqrt{\frac{(s-a)(s-d)}{ad+bc}}\sqrt{\frac{(s-b)(s-c)}{ad+bc}}(ad+bc)\tag{14}\\&=\sqrt{(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)(s-d)}\tag{15}\end{align*}

$\square$

A proof of the bicentric quadrilateral's area formula
Since $a+c=b+d$ in a bicentric quadrilateral, the formulae in $(2)$ reduce to

$$sin^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{bc}{ad+bc}\quad and \quad cos^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{ad}{ad+bc}\tag{16}$$

Assume $ABCD$ is a bicentric quadrilateral and let $\Delta_2$ be its area, then

\begin{align*}\Delta_2&=\frac{ad\sin{\alpha}}{2}+\frac{bc\sin{(180^\circ-\alpha)}}{2}\tag{17}\\&=\frac{ad\sin{\alpha}}{2}+\frac{bc\sin{\alpha}}{2}\tag{18}\\&=\sin{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cos{\frac{\alpha}{2}}(ad+bc)\tag{19}\\&=\sqrt{\frac{bc}{ad+bc}}\sqrt{\frac{ad}{ad+bc}}(ad+bc)\tag{20}\\&=\sqrt{abcd}\tag{21}\end{align*}

$\square$

## sábado, 20 de junio de 2020

### Proofs and applications of two well-known formulae involving sine, cosine and the semiperimeter of a triangle

In Cut-the-knot's Relations between various elements of a triangle, the formulae (a generalization can be found here)

$$\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}} = \frac{(s-a)(s-b)}{ab}\quad and\quad\cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}= \frac{s(s-c)}{ab}$$

are derived using Heron's formulaHere we give an alternative proof without using Heron's Formula and we demonstrate several well-known theorems based on these formulae as a sample of its power. We will be using standard notation: $BC=a$, $AC=b$, $AB=c$, $\Delta$ for the area, $s$ for the semiperimeter, $R$ for the circumradius and $r$ for the inradius. Let $D$, $E$ and $F$ be the contact points of the incircle with $AC$, $AB$ and $BC$, respectively. Also, let $AE=AD=x$; $BE=BF=y$; $CD=CF=z$.

Notice that $\frac{\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{s-c} = \frac{1}{r}$. Also, We know $Δ = rs$ and $Δ =\frac {ab\sin{\gamma}}{2}$, hence

$$\frac{\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{s-c}=\frac{1}{r}=\frac{s}{\Delta}=\frac{2s}{ab\sin{\gamma}}$$

But, $\sin{\gamma} = 2\sin{\frac{\gamma}{2}}\cos{\frac{\gamma}{2}}$, so

$$\frac{\cos{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{\sin{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}\cdot{\sin{\frac{\gamma}{2}}\cos{\frac{\gamma}{2}}} = \frac{s(s-c)}{ab}$$

from which we get $\cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}} = \frac{s(s-c)}{ab}$.

The other formula can be obtained replacing $\cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}$ by $1 - \sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}$. Indeed,

\begin{aligned} 1-\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}} &= \frac{s(s-c)}{ab} \\ \sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}} &= 1-\frac{s(s-c)}{ab} \\ &= \frac{\left(ab-s(s-c)\right)}{ab} \\ &= \frac{\left((y+z)(x+z)-(x+y+z)(z)\right)}{ab}\\ &= \frac{xy}{ab} \\ &=\frac{(s-a)(s-b)}{ab} \end{aligned}

$\square$

1. A proof of Heron's Formula
Making use of the formulae proven above and the double angle identity for sine we have

$$\sin{\gamma}=2\sqrt{\frac{s(s-c)}{ab}}\sqrt{\frac{(s-a)(s-b)}{ab}}=2\frac{\sqrt{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}}{ab}$$

Since $\Delta=\frac{ab\sin{\gamma}}{2}$, it follows

$$\Delta=\sqrt{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}$$

$\square$

2. A proof of the Law of Cosines
Since $(s-a)=x$, $(s-b)=y$ and $(s-c)=z$, then the following identity holds:
$$ab\cos{\gamma}=ab\cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}-ab\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=s(s-c)-(s-a)(s-b)$$
Substituting and multiplying by 4,
$$4ab\cos{\gamma}=(a+b+c)(a+b-c)-(b+c-a)(a+c-b)$$
Simplifying,
$$2ab\cos{\gamma}=a^2+b^2-c^2$$
$\square$

A similar reasoning must show that $a^2=b^2+c^2-2bc\cos{\alpha}$ and $b^2=a^2+c^2-2ac\cos{\beta}$.

3. Proofs for some trigonometric identities associated to a triangle
a) $\tan{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\tan{\frac{\beta}{2}}+\tan{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\tan{\frac{\gamma}{2}}+\tan{\frac{\beta}{2}}\tan{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=1$.

As a consequence of the formulae proven at the beginning of the note,

$$\tan{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\sqrt{\frac{(s-b)(s-c)}{s(s-a)}}, \quad\tan{\frac{\beta}{2}}=\sqrt{\frac{(s-a)(s-c)}{s(s-b)}}\quad and \quad \tan{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=\sqrt{\frac{(s-a)(s-b)}{s(s-c)}}$$

So, by canceling and simplifying you get

\begin{aligned}\tan{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\tan{\frac{\beta}{2}}+\tan{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\tan{\frac{\gamma}{2}}+\tan{\frac{\beta}{2}}\tan{\frac{\gamma}{2}} &=\frac{s-c}{s}+\frac{s-b}{s}+\frac{s-a}{s}\\ &=\frac{z+y+x}{s}\\ &=\frac{s}{s}=1\end{aligned}

$\square$

b) $r=4R\sin{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\sin{\frac{\beta}{2}}\sin{\frac{\gamma}{2}}$.

We make use of the well-known relationship $abc=4R\Delta$ (see here for a proof) and Heron's Formula.

\begin{aligned}r&=4R\sin{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\sin{\frac{\beta}{2}}\sin{\frac{\gamma}{2}}\\ &=4R\sqrt{\frac{(s-b)(s-c)}{bc}}\sqrt{\frac{(s-a)(s-c)}{ac}}\sqrt{\frac{(s-a)(s-b)}{ab}}\\&=4R\sqrt{\frac{(s-a)^2(s-b)^2(s-c)^2}{a^2b^2c^2}}\\&=4R\sqrt{\frac{\frac{\Delta^4}{s^2}}{a^2b^2c^2}}\\&=4R\sqrt{\frac{\frac{\Delta^4}{s^2}}{16R^2\Delta^2}}\\&=\frac{\Delta}{s}\\&=\frac{rs}{s}\\&=r\end{aligned}

$\square$

c) $s=4R\cos{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cos{\frac{\beta}{2}}\cos{\frac{\gamma}{2}}$.

\begin{aligned}s&=4R\cos{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cos{\frac{\beta}{2}}\cos{\frac{\gamma}{2}}\\ &=4R\sqrt{\frac{s(s-a)}{bc}}\sqrt{\frac{s(s-b)}{ac}}\sqrt{\frac{s(s-c)}{ab}}\\&=4R\sqrt{\frac{s^2\Delta^2}{a^2b^2c^2}}\\&=4R\frac{s\Delta}{abc}\\&=4R\frac{s\Delta}{4R\Delta}\\&=s\end{aligned}

$\square$

Consequently, the following relationship also holds

$$\tan{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\tan{\frac{\beta}{2}}\tan{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=\frac{r}{s}$$

or

$$\cot{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cot{\frac{\beta}{2}}\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=\frac{s}{r}$$

d) $\cot{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cot{\frac{\beta}{2}}\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=\cot{\frac{\alpha}{2}}+\cot{\frac{\beta}{2}}+\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}$.

To prove the above identity we will show that the right hand side equals $\frac{s}{r}$.

\begin{aligned}\frac{s}{r}&= \cot{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cot{\frac{\beta}{2}}\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=\cot{\frac{\alpha}{2}}+\cot{\frac{\beta}{2}}+\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}\\&=\frac{\sqrt{s(s-a)}}{\sqrt{(s-b)(s-c)}}+\frac{\sqrt{s(s-b)}}{\sqrt{(s-a)(s-c)}}+\frac{\sqrt{s(s-c)}}{\sqrt{(s-a)(s-b)}}\\&=\frac{\Delta(s-a)+\Delta(s-b)+\Delta(s-c)}{(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}\\&=\frac{\Delta(x+y+z)}{xyz}\\&=\Delta\frac{s^2}{\Delta^2}\\&=\frac{s^2}{rs}\\&=\frac{s}{r}\end{aligned}

$\square$

We invite the reader to prove the following identity (possibly new) on their own.
$$\frac{\cot{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cot{\frac{\beta}{2}}+\cot{\frac{\alpha}{2}}\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}+\cot{\frac{\beta}{2}}\cot{\frac{\gamma}{2}}}{(s-a)(s-b)+(s-a)(s-c)+(s-b)(s-c)}=\frac{1}{r^2}$$

a) This is problem $194$ in Go Geometry.

Proof. Let $\angle{BAC}=\alpha$. If $E'$ is the orthogonal projection of $E_a$ onto $AC$, then $AE'=s$ (well-known). It follows

$$\tan^2{\frac{\alpha}{2}}=\frac{(s-b)(s-c)}{s(s-a)}=\frac{r_a^2}{s^2}$$

Yielding,

$$r_a=\sqrt{\frac{s(s-b)(s-c)}{s-a}}=\sqrt{\frac{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}{(s-a)^2}}=\frac{\Delta}{s-a}$$

$\square$

Similarly we can get $r_b=\frac{\Delta}{s-b}$ and $r_c=\frac{\Delta}{s-c}$.

## sábado, 13 de junio de 2020

### Proof Without Words for the Addition Formula for Sine and Subtraction Formula for Cosine

I just hope this is new. What better gift than that on my birthday? :)

$$\sin{(\alpha+\beta)}=\sin{\alpha}\cos{\beta}+\cos{\alpha}\sin{\beta}\qquad\left(\alpha+\beta<\frac{\pi}{2}\right)$$

$$\cos{(\alpha-\beta)}=\cos{\alpha}\cos{\beta}+\sin{\alpha}\sin{\beta}\qquad\left(\alpha-\beta<\frac{\pi}{2}\right)$$

Related material.

### Geometric Proof of the Sum Angle Formula (Sine, Cosine)

I wouldn't say the simpler one but at least $\sin(α+β)$ can be obtained almost without words.

$\frac{\cos{\alpha}}{\cos{\beta}}-\frac{\sin{\beta}(\sin{\alpha}\cos{\beta}+\cos{\alpha}\sin{\beta})}{\cos{\beta}}=\frac{\cos{\alpha}-\sin^2{\beta}\cos{\alpha}-\sin{\beta}\sin{\alpha}\cos{\beta}}{\cos{\beta}}=\frac{\cos{\alpha}(1-\sin^2{\beta})-\sin{\beta}\sin{\alpha}\cos{\beta}}{\cos{\beta}}=$

$\frac{\cos{\alpha}\cos^2{\beta}-\sin{\beta}\sin{\alpha}\cos{\beta}}{\cos{\beta}}=\cos{\alpha}\cos{\beta}-\sin{\beta}\sin{\alpha}=\cos{(\alpha+\beta)}.$

## viernes, 5 de junio de 2020

### Yet Another Proof of the Law of Cosines

The law of cosines relates the lengths of the sides of a triangle to the cosine of one of its angles. Using standard notation, the law of cosines states

$$c^2=a^2+b^2-2ab\cos{\gamma},$$

where $\gamma$ denotes the angle contained between sides of lengths $a$ and $b$ and opposite the side of length $c$. For the same figure, the other two relations are analogous:

$$a^2=b^2+c^2-2ac\cos{\alpha},$$
$$b^2=a^2+c^2-2ac\cos{\beta}.$$

Proof. Let $D$, $E$ and $F$ be the contact points of the incircle with $AC$, $AB$ and $BC$, respectively. Also, let $AE=AD=x$; $BE=BF=y$; $CD=CF=z$. We start from two well-known relationships of a triangle: $$\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=\frac{(s-a)(s-b)}{ab} \qquad\text{and}\qquad \cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=\frac{s(s-c)}{ab}$$
(See Cut-the-knot's Relations between various elements of a triangle for proofs), where $s$ denotes the semiperimeter of $\triangle{ABC}$. Since $(s-a)=x$, $(s-b)=y$ and $(s-c)=z$, then the following identity holds:
$$ab\cos{\gamma}=ab\cos^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}-ab\sin^2{\frac{\gamma}{2}}=sz-xy$$
Substituting and multiplying by 4,
$$4ab\cos{\gamma}=(a+b+c)(a+b-c)-(b+c-a)(a+c-b)$$
Simplifying,
$$2ab\cos{\gamma}=a^2+b^2-c^2$$
$\square$

A similar reasoning must show that $a^2=b^2+c^2-2bc\cos{\alpha}$ and $b^2=a^2+c^2-2ac\cos{\beta}$.

AcknowledgementMy sincerest thanks to Angina Seng for giving helpful comments which allowed me to simplify the proof.

Related material.

## miércoles, 20 de mayo de 2020

### Another Simple Proof of Johnson's Theorem

Other proofs can be found in cut-the-knot.org. See also Johnson's Three Circles Theorem Revisited and Johnson's theorem proof.

Johnson's theorem: Let three equal circles with centers $J_a$, $J_b$, and $J_c$ intersect in a single point $H$ and intersect pairwise in the points $A$, $B$, and $C$. Then the circumcircle of the triangle $\triangle{ABC}$ is congruent to the original three.

Proof. Since $\odot{ABH}$ and $\odot{BCH}$ are congruent and as $\angle{BAH}$ and $\angle{BCH}$ are angles subtended by the same arc, it follows that $\angle{BAH}=\angle{BCH}$. Analogously, $\angle{CAH}=\angle{CBH}$. Let $O$, $J_a$ be the centers of $\odot{ABC}$ and $\odot{BCH}$, respectively, then

$$\angle{COB}=2\angle{CAB}=2\angle{CAH}+2\angle{BAH}=2\angle{CBH}+2\angle{BCH}=\angle{BJ_aC}.$$

It follows that $\triangle{BCO}$ and $\triangle{BCJ_a}$ are similar isosceles triangles sharing a common side, $BC$, so by $ASA$ we deduce that $\triangle{BCO}\cong{\triangle{BCJ_a}}$. Consequently, $\odot{ABC}$ is congruent to the original three.

$\square$

Note: The point $H$ may cross the side lines of the triangle $\triangle{ABC}$ in points either interior or exterior to the sides. The reasoning in cases other than that considered above requires only minor adjustments.